Imaging of Cardiac Masses: An Updated Overview.

Studying cardiac masses is one of the most challenging tasks for cardiac imagers. The aim of this review article is to focus on the modern imaging of cardiac masses proceeding through the most frequent ones. Cardiac benign masses such as myxoma, cardiac papillary fibroelastoma, rhabdomyoma, lipoma, and hemangioma are browsed considering the usefulness of most common cardiovascular imaging tools, such as ultrasound techniques, cardiac computed tomography, cardiac magnetic resonance, and in the diagnostic process. In the same way, the most frequent malignant cardiac masses, such as angiosarcoma and metastases, are highlighted. Then, the article browses through nontumoral masses such as cysts, mitral caseous degenerative formations, thrombi, and vegetations, highlighting the differential diagnosis between them. In addition, the article helps in recognizing anatomic normal variants that should not be misdiagnosed as pathological entities.

Reshaping of Italian Echocardiographic Laboratories Activities during the Second Wave of COVID-19 Pandemic and Expectations for the Post-Pandemic Era.

BACKGROUND: Cardiology divisions reshaped their activities during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. This study aimed to analyze the organization of echocardiographic laboratories and echocardiography practice during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy, and the expectations for the post-COVID era. METHODS: We analyzed two different time periods: the month of November during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (2020) and the identical month during 2019 (November 2019). RESULTS: During the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, the hospital activity was partially reduced in 42 (60%) and wholly interrupted in 3 (4%) echocardiographic laboratories, whereas outpatient echocardiographic activity was partially reduced in 41 (59%) and completely interrupted in 7 (10%) laboratories. We observed an important change in the organization of activities in the echocardiography laboratory which reduced the operator-risk and improved self-protection of operators by using appropriate personal protection equipment. Operators wore FFP2 in 58 centers (83%) during trans-thoracic echocardiography (TTE), in 65 centers (93%) during transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) and 63 centers (90%) during stress echocardiography. The second wave caused a significant reduction in number of echocardiographic exams, compared to November 2019 (from 513 ± 539 to 341 ± 299 exams per center, -34%, p < 0.001). On average, there was a significant increase in the outpatient waiting list for elective echocardiographic exams (from 32.0 ± 28.1 to 45.5 ± 44.9 days, +41%, p < 0.001), with a reduction of in-hospital waiting list (2.9 ± 2.4 to 2.4 ± 2.0 days, -17%, p < 0.001). We observed a large diffusion of point-of-care cardiac ultrasound (88%), with a significant increase of lung ultrasound usage in 30 centers (43%) during 2019, extended to all centers in 2020. Carbon dioxide production by examination is an indicator of the environmental impact of technology (100-fold less with echocardiography compared to other cardiac imaging techniques). It was ignored in 2019 by 100% of centers, and currently it is considered potentially crucial for decision-making in cardiac imaging by 65 centers (93%). CONCLUSIONS: In one year, major changes occurred in echocardiography practice and culture. The examination structure changed with extensive usage of point-of-care cardiac ultrasound and with lung ultrasound embedded by default in the TTE examination, as well as the COVID-19 testing.

Challenges in the diagnosis of peripartum cardiomyopathy: a case series.

BACKGROUND: Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is usually characterized by overt heart failure, but other clinical scenarios are possible, sometimes making the diagnosis challenging. CASE SUMMARY: We report a case series of four patients with PPCM. The first patient presented with acute heart failure due to left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction. Following medical treatment, LV function recovered completely at 1 month. The second patient had systemic and pulmonary thromboembolism, secondary to severe biventricular dysfunction with biventricular thrombi. The third patient presented with myocardial infarction with non-obstructed coronary arteries and evidence of an aneurysm of the mid-anterolateral LV wall. The fourth patient, diagnosed with PPCM 11 years earlier, presented with sustained ventricular tachycardia. A repeat cardiac magnetic resonance, compared to the previous one performed 11 years earlier, showed an enlarged LV aneurysm in the mid-LV anterolateral wall with worsened global LV function. DISCUSSION: Peripartum cardiomyopathy may have different clinical presentations. Attentive clinical evaluation and multimodality imaging can provide precise diagnostic and prognostic information.

Cardioembolic Stroke in Patient With Transcatheter Occluded Left Atrial Appendage.

A cerebral ischemic event in a patient managed with left atrial appendage (LAA) transcatheter obliteration is illustrated. Transesophageal echocardiography allowed identification and accurate definition of the LAA device leakage.

Thoughts modulate the expression of inflammatory genes and may improve the coronary blood flow in patients after a myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Mental stress is one of the main risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Meditation and music listening are two techniques that are able to counteract it through the activation of specific brain areas, eliciting the so-called Relaxing Response (RR). Epidemiological evidence reveals that the RR practice has a beneficial prognostic impact on patients after myocardial infarction. We aimed to study the possible molecular mechanisms of RR underlying these findings. METHODS: We enrolled 30 consecutive patients after myocardial infarction and 10 healthy controls. 10 patients were taught to meditate, 10 to appreciate music and 10 did not carry out any intervention and served as controls. After training, and after 60 days of RR practice, we studied the individual variations, before and after the relaxation sessions, of the vital signs, the electrocardiographic and echocardiographic parameters along with coronary flow reserve (CFR) and the carotid's intima media thickness (IMT). Neuro-endocrine-immune (NEI) messengers and the expression of inflammatory genes (p53, Nuclear factor Kappa B (NfKB), and toll like receptor 4 (TLR4)) in circulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells were also all observed. RESULTS: The RR results in a reduction of NEI molecules (p < 0.05) and oxidative stress (p < 0.001). The expression of the genes p53, NFkB and TLR4 is reduced after the RR and also at 60 days (p < 0.001). The CFR increases with the relaxation (p < 0.001) and the IMT regressed significantly (p < 0.001) after 6 months of RR practice. CONCLUSIONS: The RR helps to advantageously modulate the expression of inflammatory genes through a cascade of NEI messengers improving, over time, microvascular function and the arteriosclerotic process.

Intervendor Consistency and Accuracy of Left Ventricular Volume Measurements Using Three-Dimensional Echocardiography.

BACKGROUND: Intervendor consistency of left ventricular (LV) volume measurements using three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiography (3DTTE) has never been reported. Accordingly, we designed a prospective study to (1) compare head-to-head the accuracy of three three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) systems in measuring LV volumes and ejection fraction (EF) against cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR); (2) assess the intervendor variability of LV volumes and EF; and (3) compare the accuracy of fully automated versus semiautomated (i.e., manually corrected) methods of LV endocardial delineation against CMR. METHODS: We studied 92 patients (64% males, 52 years [95% CI, 20-83]) with a wide range of end-diastolic volumes (from 87 to 446 mL) and EFs (from 16% to 77%) using three different 3DE platforms (iE33; Vivid E9; Acuson SC2000) during the same echo study. CMR was performed within 3 ± 5 hours from the 3DE study in 35 patients. RESULTS: LV volumes provided by the three 3DE systems correlated with CMR volumes: end-diastolic volume (iE33: R2 = 0.93; E9: R2 = 0.94; SC2000: R2 = 0.94), end-systolic volume (iE33: R2 = 0.93; E9: R2 = 0.95; SC2000: R2 = 0.94), and EF (iE33: R2 = 0.79; E9: R2 = 0.80; SC2000: R2 = 0.77). In the 92 patients studied, LV volumes and EFs measured with the three systems were similar. Use of fully automated endocardial border detection algorithms significantly underestimated LV volumes, and the degree of underestimation was higher with larger LV volumes. CONCLUSIONS: LV volumes and EFs measured with the three 3DE systems are consistent. Fully automated algorithms underestimated LV volumes. Our findings may help in the clinical interpretation of LV parameters obtained using different 3DE systems and encourage the clinical use of 3DTTE.

NOACs and atrial fibrillation: Incidence and predictors of left atrial thrombus in the real world.

AIMS: Despite optimal oral anticoagulation with vitamin K antagonist, left atrial (LA) thrombus could be detected in the left appendage (LAA) in >2% of patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) and CHA2DS2-VASc score≥1 but few data are available for patients treated with non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOACs). We evaluated the occurrence and predictors of LA thrombi by means of transesophageal echocardiography (TOE) in consecutive patients with non-valvular AF who received for at least 3weeks Apixaban, Dabigatran, or Rivaroxaban. METHODS: This study included 414 consecutive patients (male 252, 60.6%, mean age 67.3years) referred to our Centers for catheter ablation of AF (n=220, 53.1%) or scheduled electrical cardioversion (n=194, 46.9%). Patients were on Dabigatran (n=160), Rivaroxaban (n=150) or Apixaban (n=104). TOE was performed in all cases within 12h prior to ablation or cardioversion. RESULTS: Preprocedural TOE revealed LA thrombus in 15/414 patients (3.6%), all located in the LAA (Apixaban 3/104 2.9%, Dabigatran 5/160 3.1%, and Rivaroxaban 7/150 4.7%, p=0.69). Of these, 14 patients had persistent AF. Patients with LAA thrombus had a mean CHA2DS2-VASc score of 3 (3-4). Higher CHA2DS2-VASc score (p=0.02), but not the type of NOAC, significantly predicted the presence of LA thrombus. CONCLUSION: The incidence of LAA thrombus in a cohort of patients anticoagulated with NOACs is low but not negligible, in any case similar among the 3 drugs. Preprocedural TOE should be considered in patients with a CHA2DS2-VASc score>3.

Additional Treatments for High-Risk Obstetric Antiphospholipid Syndrome: a Comprehensive Review.

Most investigators currently advocate prophylactic-dose heparin plus low-dose aspirin as the preferred treatment of otherwise healthy women with obstetric antiphospholipid syndrome, whilst women with a history of vascular thrombosis alone or associated with pregnancy morbidity are usually treated with therapeutic heparin doses in association with low-dose aspirin in an attempt to prevent both thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity. However, the protocols outlined above fail in about 20 % of pregnant women with antiphospholipid syndrome. Identifying risk factors associated with pregnancy failure when conventional therapies are utilized is an important step in establishing guidelines to manage these high-risk patients. Some clinical and laboratory risk factors have been found to be related to maternal-foetal complications in pregnant women on conventional therapy. However, the most efficacious treatments to administer to high-risk antiphospholipid syndrome women in addition to conventional therapy in order to avoid pregnancy complications are as yet unestablished. This is a comprehensive review on this topic and an invitation to participate in a multicentre study in order to identify the best additional treatments to be used in this subset of antiphospholipid syndrome patients.

Physiologic Determinants of Left Atrial Longitudinal Strain: A Two-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking and Three-Dimensional Echocardiographic Study in Healthy Volunteers.

BACKGROUND: Left atrial (LA) longitudinal strain (LS) using two-dimensional speckle-tracking echocardiography has emerged as an important diagnostic and prognostic parameter in various cardiovascular conditions. However, its reference values, their correlations with demographics characteristics, and its physiologic determinants remain to be established. METHODS: Accordingly, 171 healthy volunteers (mean age, 45 ± 12 years; 61% women) in whom LS was obtained from both apical four- and two-chamber dedicated views of the left atrium, considering the P-P interval on the electrocardiogram as the reference cardiac cycle, were prospectively studied. From the LA LS curve we measured the extent of the negative deflection (LSneg), representing LA active contraction, the positive deflection (LSpos) during LA filling, and total LS (LStot), as the sum of LSneg and LSpos values. RESULTS: Average values for biplane LA LSpos, LSneg, and LStot were 19.7%, -14.5%, and 33.3%, respectively. On multivariate analysis, age, left ventricular (LV) global LS and volume, and LV diastolic function were the main physiologic determinants of LA LSpos (R2 = 0.57) and LStot (R2 = 0.40), whereas systolic blood pressure, E/A ratio, global LS, and LV stroke volume were the main determinants of LA LSneg (R2 = 0.20). Women had higher LSpos and LStot than men, particularly before 50 years of age. LA LSpos and LStot decreased with aging, with different trends in men and women. CONCLUSIONS: LA LS values are different in men and women and should be interpreted taking into account patient age and LV function as well. These reference values may help identify subclinical LA dysfunction in several cardiovascular or systemic conditions.

Left Atrial Volumes and Function by Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Reference Values, Accuracy, Reproducibility, and Comparison With Two-Dimensional Echocardiographic Measurements.

BACKGROUND: Our study sought to (1) identify reference values for left atrial (LA) volumes and phasic function indices by 3-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) and compare them with those measured by 2-dimensional echocardiography (2DE) and (2) analyze their relationship with age, sex, body size, and left ventricular function. Accuracy and reproducibility of 3DE and 2DE have been also tested to evaluate the robustness of our data. METHODS AND RESULTS: We obtained maximal, minimal, and preA LA volumes by 3DE and 2DE in 276 healthy volunteers (18-79 years; 57% women). Limits of normality for LA volumes and total LA emptying fraction were larger with 3DE than with 2DE (maximal LA volume: 43 versus 35 mL/m(2); preA LA volume: 31 versus 25 mL/m(2); minimal LA volume: 18 versus 14 mL/m(2); 53 versus 48%, respectively; P<0.001). 3DE LA volumes indexed by body surface area were similar in men and women and increased with age. On multivariable analysis, age, weight, and left ventricular systolic and diastolic function indices resulted as correlates of LA 3DE indices. LA volumes were tightly correlated with cardiac magnetic resonance measurements, yet more underestimated by 2DE versus 3DE (bias±SD: -17±16 versus -7±15 mL, respectively). Among all LA parameters, maximal LA volume and total emptying fraction were the most reproducible, including at test-retest and at expert versus trainee comparisons. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides reference values for LA 3DE volumes and function from a relatively large cohort of healthy subjects with a wide age range. Our data may help clinicians to identify LA remodeling and dysfunction.

Sex- and Method-Specific Reference Values for Right Ventricular Strain by 2-Dimensional Speckle-Tracking Echocardiography.

BACKGROUND: Despite the fact that assessment of right ventricular longitudinal strain (RVLS) carries important implications for patient diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, its implementation in clinical settings has been hampered by the limited reference values and the lack of uniformity in software, method, and definition used for measuring RVLS. Accordingly, this study was designed to establish (1) the reference values for RVLS by 2-dimensional speckle-tracking echocardiography; and (2) their relationship with demographic, hemodynamic, and cardiac factors. METHODS AND RESULTS: In 276 healthy volunteers (55% women; age, 18-76 years), free wall and septum RVLS (6 segments) and free wall RVLS (3 segments) using both 6- and 3-segment regions of interest were obtained. Feasibility of 6-segment RVLS was 92%. Free wall RVLS from 3- versus 6-segment regions of interest had similar values, yet 6-segment region of interest was more feasible (86% versus 73%; P<0.001) and reproducible. Reference values (lower limits of normality) were as follows: 6-segment RVLS, -24.7±2.6% (-20.0%) for men and -26.7±3.1% (-20.3%) for women; 3-segment RVLS, -29.3±3.4% (-22.5%) for men and -31.6±4.0% (-23.3%) for women (P<0.001). Free wall RVLS was 5±2 strain units (%) larger in magnitude than 6-segment RVLS, 10±4% larger than septal RVLS, and 2±4% larger in women than in men (P<0.001). At multivariable analysis, age, sex, pulmonary systolic pressure, right atrial minimal volume, as well as right atrial and left ventricular longitudinal strain resulted as correlates of RVLS values. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest study providing sex- and method-specific reference values for RVLS. Our data may foster the implementation of 2-dimensional speckle-tracking echocardiography-derived RV analysis in clinical practice.

Relationship between mitral annulus function and mitral regurgitation severity and left atrial remodelling in patients with primary mitral regurgitation.

AIMS: To explore the relationship between the mitral annular (MA) remodelling and dysfunction, mitral regurgitation (MR) severity, left ventricular (LV) and atrial (LA) size and function in patients with organic MR (OMR). METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 52 patients (57 ± 15 years, 31 men) with mild to severe OMR and 52 controls underwent 3D transthoracic echocardiography acquisitions of the mitral valve (MV), LA, and LV. MA geometry and dynamics, LV and LA volumes, LV ejection fraction (LVEF) and emptying fractions (LAEF) were assessed using dedicated software packages. LA and LV myocardial deformations were assessed using 2D speckle-tracking echocardiography. OMR patients presented larger and more spherical MA than controls during the entire systole (P < 0.001). Although the MA non-planarity at early-systole was similar between OMR and controls (157 ± 13° vs. 153 ± 12°, P = NS), the MA became flatter from mid- to end-systole (153 ± 12 vs. 146 ± 10° and 157 ± 12 vs. 147 ± 8°, P < 0.01) in OMR. MA area fractional change was lower in patients with OMR (22 ± 5% vs. 28 ± 5%, P < 0.001), and correlated with the MR orifice and volume (r = -0.52 and r = -0.55). MA fractional area change correlated with LA minimum and maximum volumes (r = 0.77 and r = 0.70), total and active LAEF (r = 0.72 and r = 0.76), and LA negative strain and strain rate (r = 0.52 and r = 0.57), but not with the LVEF or LV global longitudinal strain. In a multivariate regression model using LAEF and LVEF, solely active LAEF correlated with the MA fractional area change (ß = 0.51, P = 0.005). CONCLUSION: In patients with OMR, MA reduced function correlates with the MR severity and the LA size and function, but not with the LV function.

New speckle-tracking algorithm for right ventricular volume analysis from three-dimensional echocardiographic data sets: validation with cardiac magnetic resonance and comparison with the previous analysis tool.

AIMS: (i) To validate a new software for right ventricular (RV) analysis by 3D echocardiography (3DE) against cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR); (ii) to assess the accuracy of different measurement approaches; and (iii) to explore any benefits vs. the previous software. METHODS AND RESULTS: We prospectively studied with 3DE and CMR 47 patients (14-82 years, 28 men) having a wide range of RV end-diastolic volumes (EDV 82-354 mL at CMR) and ejection fractions (EF 34-81%). Multi-beat RV 3DE data sets were independently analysed with the new software using both automated and manual editing options, as well as with the previous software. RV volume reproducibility was tested in 15 random patients. RV volumes and EF measurements by the new software had an excellent accuracy (bias ± SD: -15 ± 24 mL for EDV; 1.4 ± 4.9% for EF) and reproducibility compared with CMR, provided that the RV borders automatically tracked by software were systematically edited by operator. The automated analysis option underestimated the EDV, overestimated the ESV, and largely underestimated the EF (bias ± SD: -17 ± 10%). RV volumes measured with the new software using manual editing showed similar accuracy, but lower inter-observer variability and shorter analysis time (3-5') in comparison with the previous software. CONCLUSION: Novel vendor-independent 3DE software enables an accurate, reproducible and faster quantitation of RV volumes and ejection fraction. Rather than optional, systematic verification of border tracking quality and manual editing are mandatory to ensure accurate 3DE measurements. These findings are relevant for echocardiography laboratories aiming to implement 3DE for RV analysis for both research and clinical purposes.